V-Speeds Explained (Vx, Vy, Va, Vs, Vfe, Vmc, Vno, Vne, etc)

Last Updated:

V-speeds are standardized airspeeds that mark an aircraft’s limits and its best performance targets. The FAA defines them in 14 CFR 1.2, and they cover everything from stall speed to never exceed speed. 

The ones you’ll use most are VX (best angle of climb), VY (best rate of climb), VA (maneuvering speed), VNE (never exceed speed), and VS (stall speed). Each aircraft’s exact numbers live in its Pilot’s Operating Handbook.

In this article, we’ll explain everything you need to know about V-speeds. Plus, we’ve created a handy list so that you never have to Google them again, and a quick quiz so you can test yourself before your next flight or checkride.

Key Takeaways

• V-speeds are standardized airspeeds defined in 14 CFR 1.2. They mark structural limits and best performance targets.
• VX gives you the most altitude per mile. VY gives you the most altitude per minute.
• VNO is your ceiling in rough air. VNE is the absolute limit and applies even when the air is smooth.
• VA drops as the airplane gets lighter, so the published figure only holds at maximum weight.

What Are V-Speeds?

V-speeds are specific airspeeds that are defined for operational reasons, such as limitations (e.g., maximum flaps extended speed – VFE) or performance requirements (e.g., best rate of climb speed – VY).

In other words, V-speeds serve as critical benchmarks that guide pilots in managing the aircraft’s performance and ensuring safety.

For example, the rotation speed (VR) is the speed at which the pilot initiates a gentle rotation of the aircraft to lift off the ground during takeoff. 

A V-speed may change depending on factors such as aircraft weight and weather conditions, but its designation (e.g., VR) remains the same.

You may find several V-speeds on the internet that aren’t listed here. That’s because the V-speeds we’re talking about today are defined in 14 CFR Part 1, as well as 14 CFR Part 23, Part 25, and Part 29 (used for aircraft certification).

Any other V-speeds you encounter are likely manufacturer-specific and aren’t regarded as official V-speeds by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA).

Free V-Speed Quiz

Try your hand at our quiz! If you miss anything, read the article and try the quiz again.

Mach Numbers and V-Speeds

You may find V-speeds with an “M” instead of the usual “V” (MMO instead of VMO, for example).

This means that the particular speed is defined using a Mach number.

V-speeds can be defined using any type of airspeed, such as knots or miles per hour, but the designation remains “V” unless a Mach number is used – then it becomes “M”.

Free Private Pilot Study Sheet

Grab a printable PDF that highlights must-know PPL topics for the written test and checkride.

• Airspace at-a-glance.
• Key regs & V-speeds.
• Weather quick cues.
• Pattern and radio calls.

Get the Free Study Sheet

V-Speeds List

The list below comes from the abbreviations in 14 CFR 1.2. Not every speed applies to every aircraft, and you won’t find most of them in a light single’s POH. The ones you are most likely to need are explained in detail after the table.

V-Speed	Description
VA	Design maneuvering speed.
VB	Design speed for maximum gust intensity.
VC	Design cruising speed.
VD	Design diving speed.
VDF	Demonstrated flight diving speed.
VEF	Speed at which the critical engine is assumed to fail during takeoff.
VF	Design flap speed.
VFC	Maximum speed for stability characteristics.
VFE	Maximum flap extended speed.
VFTO	Final takeoff speed.
VH	Maximum speed in level flight with maximum continuous power.
VLE	Maximum landing gear extended speed.
VLO	Maximum landing gear operating speed.
VLOF	Lift-off speed.
VMC	Minimum control airspeed with the critical engine inoperative.
VMO	Maximum operating limit speed.
VMU	Minimum unstick speed.
VNE	Never-exceed speed.
VNO	Maximum structural cruising speed.
VR	Rotation speed.
VREF	Reference landing speed.
VS	Stalling speed or minimum steady flight speed at which the airplane is controllable.
VS0	Stall speed in the landing configuration.
VS1	Stall speed in a specific configuration (e.g., ‘clean’ configuration).
VSR	Reference stall speed.
VSR0	Reference stall speed in the landing configuration.
VSR1	Reference stall speed in a specific configuration.
VSW	Speed at which onset of natural or artificial stall warning occurs.
VTOSS	Takeoff safety speed for Category A aircraft.
VX	Speed for best angle of climb.
VY	Speed for best rate of climb.
V1	Takeoff decision speed.
V2	Takeoff safety speed.
V2min	Minimum takeoff safety speed.

Most Important V-Speeds Explained

Let’s take a look at the V-speeds you’re most likely to encounter – and the ones you should know.

As we go through them, use the Pilot’s Operating Handbook (POH) for the airplane you fly, and make a note of the speed for each V-speed. If it isn’t defined in the POH or is variable, make sure you know how to calculate it.

You’ll make your life a whole lot easier if you take the time to memorize them.

VR: Rotation Speed

VR is the speed at which the pilot gently pulls back on the control column to lift the nose off of the runway during takeoff.

For most commercial aircraft, VR varies for each takeoff depending on the weight and configuration of the aircraft as well as environmental factors like weather or runway conditions.

In most General Aviation (GA) aircraft, VR is usually the same regardless of conditions.

VR has floors set by regulation. For transport category airplanes, it can’t be less than V1 or 105 percent of VMC, and it has to be high enough that the airplane reaches V2 before 35 feet (14 CFR 25.107(e)).

VX: Best Angle of Climb Speed

VX is the airspeed that provides the best angle of climb. In other words, if you maintain VX, you’ll gain the most altitude in the shortest horizontal distance.

This speed is your go-to for a short-field takeoff, particularly when there are obstacles that you need to climb above during takeoff.

You should practice climbing at VX (and short-field takeoffs) regularly, as it is a critical skill during short-field operations.

VY: Best Rate of Climb Speed

VY is the airspeed for best rate of climb. In other words, if you maintain VY, you’ll gain the most altitude in the shortest amount of time.

Compared to VX, you’ll use more horizontal distance.

VY is the speed typically used during climb.

VA: Maneuvering Speed

VA is the aircraft’s design maneuvering speed. It is the speed above which you risk damaging the aircraft’s structure if you make a full deflection of a flight control (e.g., full-up elevator). 

If you make a full deflection of a flight control at or below VA, the aircraft will stall before the structure is damaged.

You should not use full deflection of any flight control above VA. That being said, repeated full deflection of any flight controls (such as full right rudder and then full left rudder, for example) is not recommended, even below VA.

VA isn’t a fixed figure; it varies with weight. If the aircraft’s weight decreases, VA decreases as well, and vice versa.

VFE: Maximum Flaps Extended Speed

VFE, or maximum flap extended speed, is the highest speed permissible with the flaps extended. 

This speed is your boundary marker when flying with flaps down, ensuring you don’t cause potential structural damage.

Not all aircraft treat VFE as a singular speed regardless of flap setting. Some publish one VFE for every setting. Others break it out by setting.

In the Cessna 172S, you can fly with 10 degrees of flaps below 110 knots. Anything more than 10 degrees of flaps, and you’re limited to 85 knots instead. Check your POH, because these numbers vary by model year.

VLE: Maximum Landing Gear Extended Speed

VLE, or maximum landing gear extended speed, is the top speed at which you can safely fly with the landing gear extended.

A related speed is VLO, or maximum landing gear operating speed, the speed above which you cannot extend or retract the landing gear. 

VLO is typically lower than VLE due to the aerodynamic forces exerted on the landing gear during extension or retraction.

VNE: Never Exceed Speed

VNE, or “never exceed” speed, is exactly that. The speed above which you should never venture under any circumstances.

VNO: Maximum Structural Cruising Speed

VNO, the maximum structural cruising speed, is the highest speed you should fly in anything other than smooth air. Exceed it only in smooth air, and then only with caution.

VNO is marked by the upper limit of the green arc on the airspeed indicator.

If you’re above VNO (in the yellow arc or “caution range”) and you encounter air that is not smooth, you could cause damage to the aircraft.

For example, if you encounter turbulence, the “bumps” you experience will increase the load factor. If you fly above VNO in these conditions, the increase in load factor could damage the aircraft’s structure.

VNO isn’t your turbulence speed, though. In anything more than light bumps, slow to VA or below. More on VA above.

VS: Stall Speed

VS represents stall speed, essentially the lowest speed at which your aircraft can maintain steady flight.

When it comes to VS, there’s an important caveat.

An aircraft can stall at any speed. 

A stall occurs when the aircraft exceeds the critical angle of attack. This can happen at any airspeed. 

Say a pilot is descending at a high airspeed, far from VS. If they quickly pitch up, the aircraft may exceed the critical angle of attack and stall, despite being at a high airspeed.

So, why do we define VS?

Well, in a “normal” attitude (think straight-and-level), the aircraft is only at risk of stalling if:

1. The pilot makes a dramatic control input that quickly increases the angle of attack, or
2. The pilot maintains altitude while the airspeed decreases, gradually increasing the angle of attack and eventually stalling at VS.

So, can the aircraft stall at any airspeed? Yes.

When is it most likely to stall? At VS.

The V-speed for stall speed is divided into two types:

• VS0 – the stall speed in the landing configuration (e.g., flaps and gear down)
• VS1 – the stall speed in a specific configuration (e.g., ‘clean’ – flaps and gear up)

The difference between the stall speed with the flaps down versus the flaps up is significant, so it makes sense to differentiate between the two.

One final note about VS.

Every manufacturer determines the stall speed for their aircraft. The test for stall speed is performed with the throttle closed at maximum takeoff weight.

This means that you may experience a lower stall speed than published in the POH if you’re flying at a lower weight or the throttle isn’t closed.

Stall speed testing standards for most GA airplanes come from the pre-2017 version of 14 CFR 23.49. Airplanes certificated after August 2017 fall under the restructured Part 23. Either way, your POH limitations section is the practical reference.

V1: Takeoff Decision Speed

V1, or the takeoff decision speed, is the speed by which the decision to continue the takeoff or abort must be made.

The primary purpose of V1 is to serve as a decision point. If a critical system fails (such as an engine) or other anomalies occur before reaching V1, there will be sufficient runway remaining to abort the takeoff safely.

However, once V1 is surpassed, the takeoff should continue, as there will not be enough runway left to stop safely.

V1 is not a fixed number and is calculated before each takeoff, taking into account several factors, including aircraft weight, runway length, environmental conditions, and aircraft performance data.

V1 is where the pilot must take the first action (such as reducing thrust) to stop the aircraft or risk a runway overrun.

It’s important to note that V1 also relates to the aircraft’s performance capability in case of an engine failure. After V1, the aircraft must have the performance capability to continue the takeoff on the remaining engines and achieve the required climb performance.

That’s where V2, or takeoff safety speed, comes into play.

V2: Takeoff Safety Speed

V2, known as the takeoff safety speed, is the minimum speed at which the aircraft can maintain a specified climb gradient with one engine inoperative.

The primary goal of V2 is to ensure a safe climb gradient in an engine failure scenario. This speed ensures that the aircraft can maintain a positive rate of climb to clear obstacles and reach a safer altitude.

The aircraft must be able to achieve V2 at a minimum of 35 ft above the end of the runway distance after an engine failure at V1.

VEF: Critical Engine Failure Speed During Takeoff

VEF is the speed at which the critical engine is assumed to fail during takeoff for certification purposes. The manufacturer selects it, and it can’t be lower than VMCG.

Interestingly, it is not at V1, but actually before.

This may sound strange, because we should abort the takeoff if an engine failure occurs before V1, right? 

Well, regulations state that takeoff performance calculations should account for an engine failure that is close enough to V1 that the pilot does not have enough time to abort at V1.

In other words, if the engine fails right before V1 without enough time to react, the aircraft must be able to take off safely and achieve V2 at the specified height and distance.

VMC: Minimum Control Speed

VMC, or minimum control speed, represents the lowest speed at which a multi-engine aircraft can maintain controlled flight with one engine inoperative and the other at full power.

VEF may not be less than VMCG, and V2min may not be less than 1.1 times VMC.

VMC is often divided into two distinct speeds: VMCA and VMCG, each addressing a different aspect of aircraft control under asymmetric thrust conditions.

VMCA: Minimum Control Speed Air

VMCA is the minimum speed at which the aircraft can maintain controlled flight in the air with one engine failing and the other at full power.

Below VMCA, the aircraft may become uncontrollable due to the loss of directional control, making it a critical speed to be aware of during flight operations.

VMCG: Minimum Control Speed Ground

VMCG, on the other hand, is the minimum speed at which the aircraft can maintain directional control on the ground, with one engine inoperative and the other at full power. 

It’s vital to know the speed during the takeoff roll to ensure that control can be maintained if an engine fails during takeoff.

Frequently Asked Questions

What Is the Difference Between VNO and VNE?

VNO is the maximum structural cruising speed and sits at the top of the green arc. VNE is the never exceed speed and sits at the red line. The gap between them is the yellow arc, or caution range. 

You can fly in the yellow arc, but only in smooth air and only with caution. That is the part people get backwards. VNO is not the fastest you can go in smooth air. It is the fastest you should go when the air is anything but smooth. 

Above VNO, a gust can push the load factor past what the structure was certified to take. VNE is different. It applies no matter how smooth the air is, and there is no condition that makes exceeding it acceptable.

Why Does Maneuvering Speed Change With Weight?

VA drops as the airplane gets lighter, which feels backwards to most pilots the first time they hear it. A heavier airplane needs a higher angle of attack to generate the lift that holds it up. 

That means it is already closer to the critical angle of attack, so it stalls sooner when you pull. Stalling is what protects the structure, because a wing that stalls stops generating the load that would bend it. 

Lighten the airplane and it can reach a higher load factor before stalling, so the speed where the stall arrives first has to come down. 

The VA in your POH is usually published at maximum weight. Fly lighter and your real VA is lower than the number on the placard.

What Is the Difference Between VX and VY?

VX is best angle of climb and gets you the most altitude in the least horizontal distance. 

VY is best rate of climb and gets you the most altitude in the least time. VX is the slower of the two. 

You use VX when something is in the way, like trees or terrain off the end of a short runway, because it buys you the steepest path over the obstacle. 

You use VY for everything else, because it gets you to altitude fastest and keeps more air flowing over the engine while you do it. 

The two speeds converge as you climb, and at the airplane’s absolute ceiling they meet. Both are in your POH, and both change with weight and density altitude.

Can a Plane Stall at Any Speed?

Yes. A stall happens when the wing exceeds its critical angle of attack, and that has nothing to do with how fast the airplane is moving. 

Pull hard enough at cruise speed and you can stall the wing. Pull hard enough in a dive and you can stall it there too. VS is not the speed where stalls become possible. 

It is the slowest speed at which the airplane can hold steady flight in a normal attitude, which makes it the speed where a stall is most likely if you simply let the airspeed decay. 

That is why angle of attack matters more than airspeed, and why an angle of attack indicator tells you something the airspeed indicator cannot.

Conclusion

V-speeds are critical references that ensure safety and efficiency. They are the result of meticulous calculations and real-world testing and shouldn’t be disregarded.

You may have even encountered these speeds when flying without knowing it

One thing’s for sure: you’ll notice them now!